Semantics paper

INTRODUCTION

A major promise of semantics is to ensure that meaning  of linguistics units is maximally accessible. One way to achieve this is to ensure that we have logical arguments in our presentations. Logic deals with the process of evaluating the truth and falsity of arguments. What is logical is deemed to have the right reasoning. There are, however, times when the strength of an argument is weakened by fallacies. A fallacy, from its origin, fallor is any error of reasoning which can lead to deception. Quite the number of fallacies are derived from language use.

The study of meaning will not be complete if we focus mainly on linguistic fallacies. There are indeed other forms of fallacies which derive from a compromise in the truth of the arguments.

DISCUSSION

A.     Aspects of materials fallacies relevant to semantics

It will be recalled that on our discussion of linguistic fallacies, we made  reference to material fallacies. In this units, we sshall explore in some detail different manifestations of material fallacy.

a.        NGOZI OKONJO-IWEALA MISSION (whereas what they mean was that her name was not the list of niminees presented to the senate)

b.      Another example was noted in some newspaper: UNILAG VICE-CHANCELLOR IN POLICE NET (a fake vice-chancellor apprehended)

Most reader would be carried away by the capital letters, whereas the real messege is in the small letters.

c.         Figures of Speech ( Figure Directions)

In a specialized way, figures of speech derive from the confusion over words which are perceive to be similar in sound or structure-as in.

-Accent-assent

-council-counsel

-Eligible-illigible

-illicit-elicit

Greater import of the figure of speech occurs in the literal interpretation of metaphorical expressions, including the following:

a.       John kicked the bucket

b.      He swallowed his pride

c.        

1.        Fallacy of Accident and fallacy of Converse Accident

Fallacies in this category are of two forms : Fallacy accident and fallacy of converse accident. Fallacy of accident occurs when a general rule is applied to a specific case, where such a rule would not applicable. This form of fallacy is common in political and legal arguments. For instance, while most constitutions will provide for  the protection of personal freedom, there maybe the tendency to argue that even offenders and criminals should not have their freedom curtailed by terms of imprisonment.

The fallacy of converse accident is also referred to as the fallacy of hasty generalisation. It occurs when we take specific incidents to be the basis of universal conclusions. Thus, the evidence of that specific even always restricted, thus making whatever generalisation hasty and invalid. Concider the following generalisation :

a.       All great footballers are charming

b.      Singel woman can not be good leader

2.        Question Begging Fallacies

The fallacy of begging the question arises when what is intended to be proved as the conclusion is assumed to be the premise. It may also occur if one  of the truth of the premise can not be established without the conclusion being found to be true. There may also be a situation where an issue perceived to be true under particular circumtances inferred from a universal premise. Usually thet universal premise is also inferred from a specific case. Thus, a universal proposition is assumed to derive from a case that is only true in certain circumtances. For example:

a.       That utterence comes from men ruled by their wives, becouse only a man ruled by his wife can say such things.

b.      You know he is the wealthiest man in the village becouse he is the strongest

Question begging epithets are expressed as adjectives which carry with them value judgements. In each of this judjements, there are conclusioans that are yet to be proved. Most forms of propaganda exhibit instances of question begging epithets. For example:

a.       These shameless university teachers will always line their pockets with ill gotten wealth from unholy sales of handouts

3.        The Complex Question

There is a complex question when we assume a yes or no as the answer to a question that has the greater implications. In many instance of questions, there is assumption that the basic fact has been established in a yes-no  scenario. This situation is apparent in the following questions:

a.       Why are blacks interested in self perpetuation in office? (has it been proved)

b.      Why do academics turn out to be poor leaders. (is it always the case)

4.        False Causal Relationship

There is a false causal relationship when what is assumed to be the cause of an action is actually not. It may also be a situation when what follows an event is assumed to be caused by that event. In medical circles, this fallacy may link a sympton to an ailment when in actual fact something else maybe happening. Concider this situation:

a.       They bacame successful after they left the scene of war. Therefore, their success is linked to their new location.

5.        Attacking The Straw Man

This fallacy also referred to as  the smear technique is the practice of attacking the personality or circumtances of the opponent in an argument rather than focusing on the issues. This attack  may manifest in the use of offensive language, insults an abuse, rather than proving or disproving the logic of the argument.

There are three variants of this fallacy, they are the genetic, relational, and the well poisoning fallacy.

·        The object of attack  in the genetic fallacy is the source or the origin of an argument.

·        At the relational level, there is the assumption that one’s idea, opinions or arguments are related to one’s circumtances. People who have some substance in sociaty  are usually perceived to have brighter idea.

·        For fallacy that poison the well, there is a deliberate attempt to discredit the source of a supporting piece of evidence.

Example:

a.       Who would believe this self-imposed leader who is a drunkard and a brute?

b.      It will be inconceivable for people to follow the opinions of Mr. Banda, where parents could hardly train beyond the primary school.

c.       I am sure you are not expacting us to follow the logic of this argument since we know that the data have bee  compromised all through.