Language Comprehension and its Components

Language comprehension is something that is done unconsciously and quite easily by most humans.  Because of this, the specific way that comprehension works is something that many people never consider.  Therefore, this paper will attempt to answer the question: how does language comprehension work and what contributes to it?

Comprehension is mainly thought to occur in the Wernicke’s area of the brain which is located in the left temporal lobe (Psychology 240 lecture, 3/22/11).  The reason that understanding of language is assumed to be related to this area is because of a condition called Wernicke’s aphasia.  Patients that have this type of aphasia have had some sort of damage to their left temporal lobe.  They typically are unable to understand the spoken words of others, but their own speech production stays intact, albeit jumbled (Psychology 240 lecture, 3/22/11).  The results of this problem prove that language comprehension mainly takes place in Wernicke’s area.

Though humans are equipped with Wernicke’s area from birth, language comprehension develops along with the child.  It is very difficult for researchers to decipher when babies first begin to understand language, unlike learning where it occurs which was relatively obvious.  No baby can explain how much language they understand because they lack the ability to produce language.  Thus, many creative experiments have been conducted to attempt to see if babies are able to interpret different sounds.  If they are able to discriminate between sounds, they are one step closer to understanding the differences in meanings of words.  One study, by Eimas et al., looked at the rate of sucking on a pacifier that a baby had (Psychology 240 lecture, 3/24/11).  The researchers played a certain sound and the child would become excited by the sound and suck more (Psychology 240 lecture, 3/24/11).  Eventually, the baby would get used to the sound and the sucking would return to a normal rate (Psychology 240 lecture, 3/24/11).  If the sound was changed, the sucking would once again become more intense (Psychology 240 lecture, 3/24/11).  This study displayed that babies (as young as one month old!) are able to decipher between two different sounds.  However, this does not provide any solid information about comprehension.

Comprehension in babies is almost absolutely impossible to study because they cannot speak or move as well as older children and adults.  Because of this, most knowledge about comprehension is derived from children that already are able to fluently speak a language.  It is known that children at age five know between 10,000 and 15,000 words and are learning around 10 new words a day (Psychology 240 lecture, 3/24/11). This knowledge is quite unbelievable and difficult to even comprehend.

The first words that a child uses and understands are usually concrete, short words that are used a lot by parents.  Many babies are bombarded with parents saying “mama” or “dada” in their face all the time and naturally, this is usually one of a child’s first words.  Not only does the repetition help, but the consonants /m/ and /d/ are easy for a child to pronounce (Psychology 240 lecture, 3/24/11).  Does the fact that children say certain words earlier in life mean that they only understand those words at that point?  The answer to that question is currently unknown but the answer is assumed to be no.  Logic tells us that most babies are able to understand much more than they are able to produce.  Many young children are able to answer complex questions provided by their parents, without having the ability to form these questions on their own.

Many children show their understanding (or lack thereof) of language through a few common mistakes.  The first time a young child hears a word, they usually will assume that the word applies to the entire object (Psychology 240 lecture, 3/24/11).  This idea is referred to as the “whole-object bias” (Psychology 240 lecture, 3/24/11).  For example, if a parent comments on a pretty lampshade, the child may assume that the entire lamp is called a “lampshade.”  Another common error of children who do not have full language comprehension is the idea that the name of a certain item refers to its shape and will consequently extend the name to other items with the same shape (Psychology 240 lecture, 3/24/11).  In both of these cases, the child clearly does not understand what the word/component of language is attempting to talk about.

A piece that often accompanies language and helps children, and other adults, understand the topic being spoken about, is gesture.  Gestures are movements of the body used to help express the meaning of an idea (Merriam-Webster, 2011).

A study was conducted by Kelly et. al. to investigate the effects of gesture on language comprehension (Kelly et. al., 2009).  They propose a hypothesis that states that the relationship between gesture and language is bidirectional and occurs simultaneously in order to help the understanding of language (Kelly et. al., 2009).  In order to test this hypothesis, they used twenty-nine college students, a relatively small sample size, and had them watch a video of an action prime, have a blank screen, then see someone produce a gesture and word (Kelly et. al., 2009).  In the first experiment, about half of the videos had the video and the prime match.  The other half had the follow-up videos range in similarity to the prime, though not completely the same.  The subject’s job was to press a ‘yes’ button if the video and the prime matched and a ‘no’ button if it did not.  Their prediction was that if they have the same target and prime, the reaction times would be shorter and there would be fewer errors (Kelly et. al., 2009).  The results showed that their prediction was correct in both facets; the subjects were faster when the video matched the prime and there were fewer errors (Kelly et. al., 2009).

A second experiment was conducted that had basically the same set-up as the first with one major difference.  A new group of 41 college students were used and they were told similar directions to the first experiment except this time, they were only supposed to answer in regards to if the spoken word (not the gesture) was the same as the prime (Kelly et. al., 2009).  The researchers predicted that because they think that speech and gesture work together, if the gesture and speech become dissimilar, the reaction times will be longer and there will be more errors (Kelly et. al., 2009).  The results supported their prediction because as the speech and gesture became more incongruent, accuracy and reaction times both increased (Kelly et. al., 2009).

This study, which included two experiments, found that their logical hypotheses were in fact supported.  When gesture and language together help to both say the same thing, it is easier to understand and humans make fewer errors than if they say conflicting things (Kelly et. al., 2009).  During the incongruent conditions in the first experiment, the subjects made on average 8 times as many errors when the differences were weakly incongruent and 11 times as many when they were strongly incongruent (Kelly et. al., 2009).

Due to the findings of this study, there is solid data that supports the fact that gesture enhances understanding when paired with language.  This makes logical sense because humans tend to use and interpret gestures on a moment-to-moment basis.

Language comprehension is a complex process that occurs easily and effortlessly by humans.  It develops along with the brain and is able to be enhanced with the use of gesture.  Though it is unknown exactly how early comprehension is fully developed in children, gestures are undoubtedly useful for understanding the language around us.  Further studies need to be invented and conducted so that language comprehension can be even better understood.  An interesting study might be looking at whether gestures or language produce a more thorough understanding of a concept.  With time, comprehension may be able to be fully understood.

 References:

Kelly, S., Maris, E. & Özyüre A. (2009).  Two sides of the same coin: speech and

gesture mutually interact to enhance comprehension.

Psychological Science 21, 260-267

gesture. 2011. In Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary.

Retrieved March 26, 2011, from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/gestures

Specific Purpose Statement

SPECIFIC PURPOSE STATEMENT

           

The general purpose of any speech will be either to Inform; Motivate/Persuade; or Entertain your audience. As soon as you know the general purpose of your speech you can develop your Specific Purpose Statement (What the speaker will accomplish). Your Specific Purpose Statement is used to develop your speech. You don't acutally say it in your speech.

Restrict your Specific Purpose to one idea only. In Speech 151 for the informative speech your general purpose is to inform. For an informative speech you will want to start your specific purpose statement with "I will inform my audience about...." A Specific Purpose Statement for an informative speech will be phrased much like the following statements. Click here for more examples of Specific Purposes, Central Ideas, and Main Points.

Informative speech specific purpose statements:

    I will inform my audience about the two major forms of hula.

    I will inform my audience about what lifegaurds do as part of their jobs.

                          

When you have your specific purpose statement you are ready to compose your Thesis Statement/Central Idea (they are one in the same). This is the most important part of your speech. This is one sentence that encompasses the central idea of your speech.

Writing your thesis statement/central idea is a four step process:

1.      Choose your topic

2.      Determine your general purpose

3.      Write your specific purpose statement

4.      Tie it all together by composing a clear concise thesis statement/central idea

The following are effective Thesis Statements/Central Ideas for the informative specific purpose statements above:

·        "The two major forms of hula that have played an important role in Hawaiian history and have developed into unique dances are the Kahiko and 'Auana."

·        "Lifegaurding is a great way to spend your days on the beach, but the work includes training, teaching, and lots of practice making it more challenging than what you see on "Baywatch."

Your next step is to compose the main points of your speech. Main points are complete sentences that create a dialogue with your audience. With your main points you want to create questions in the mind of your audience. You will answer the question in your support of your main points. You make a claim in your main points and you support your claim in your subpoints, sub-subpoints, sub-sub-subpoints and so on.

The following are examples of Main points:

Specific Purpose: I will inform my audience about the two major forms of hula.

Central Idea: "The two major forms of hula that have played an important role in Hawaiian history and have developed into unique dances are the Kahiko and 'Auana."

    (Main Point 1) "The ancient hula or Kahiko is a unique form of hula."

    (Main Point 2) "The Kahiko plays an improtant role in the history of Hawaii."

    (Main Point 3) "The 'Auana or modern hula has played an important role in Hawaiian history."

    (Main Point 4) "The 'Auana has developed into a unique form of dance and storytelling."

Speech 151 students can find more examples of specific purpose statements and central ideas on pages of 240-251 of our text. You can also find examples of Main Points.

Arranged by Ahmad Hakiki

Persuade With Power (speaking tips)

PERSUADE WITH POWER

Today we are bombarded by persuasive messages. Advertisements try to persuade us to buy a particular brand of soft drink, coffee or antacid. salespeople try to persuade us to buy an automobile, a personal computer or a cellular telephone. We do it too, by trying to persuade our spouses to vacation in the Bahamas, persuade a salesclerk to refund our money, or convince our boss that a certain proposal is better.

People who can speak persuasively have a great deal of influence. The ability to get others to understand, accept, and act upon your ideas is a skill you can use every day at home, at work and in the community. It is also a characteristic of a good leader. Throughout history people have rallied around those who can speak persuasively.

 Types of Persuasion

In a persuasive speech, your primary purpose is to influence the thinking or behavior of listeners. You can influence the in several ways:

v  Inspire. Your goal is to excite your listeners about your topic or reinforce their existing ideas or beliefs, not necessarily to alter their opinions or beliefs. Sermons and commencement addresses fall into this category of persuasive speech. You’ll learn more about this type of speesch in Project 10.

v  Convince. You want your listeners to change their opinions or to develop the same opinion you have. You may not want them to do anything at the moment but change their minds. A presentation convincing listeners that extraterrestrial life exists is an example of this type of speech.

v  Call them to action. You want listeners to do something after hearing your presentation, such as sign a petition, read a book or buy a product.

Your Role

Impressions count, and this is especially true in persuasive speaking. While the content of your message is important, of equal weight is the audience’s opinion of you. Your listeners must like, trust and respect you before they will adopt your ideas. They should view you as someone they can identify with someone whose needs and interests are similar to theirs. They base their opinion of you on your:

v  Knowledge. You must be qualified to discuss the subject and offer evidence to support your position. You must know the subject well and be able to present plenty of evidence to support your ideas.

v  Reputation. Your reputation is based on your past performances, accomplishments and honors. Make sure the audience is familiar with your qualifications through your introduction, advance publicity or your speech itself.

v  Sincerity. You communicate your ideas with conviction and believe that what you are proposing will truly benefit the audience. Audiences are naturally suspicious of anyone who is trying to change them in any way, so you must make it clear that you have their interests in mind and are not seeking their support for selfish reasons.

v  Delivery. If you appear timid, the audience will be less likely to accept your ideas. Speak firmly and confidently, and establish direct eye contact with listeners

The Audience

The way you present your persuasive message will depend on who your listeners are and what attitudes they hold toward your subject. Your audience may be:

v  Agreeable. This audience already agrees with your opinion or viewpoint, so you simply have to strengthen and reinforce ths agreement.

v  Apathetic. Your listeners don’t care about your subject or your views, so you must convince them that the issue directly affects them. This is the most common type of attitude.

v  Hostile. The audience is opposed to you, your subject and/ or your viewpoint. You must help listeners to recognize the merits of your position and make them reconsider their own views.

v  Uninformed. Your listeners aren’t apathetic; they just don’t know anything about your subject. You will have to educate them and convince them of its importance.

v  Mixed. The audience contains more than one of the above types. You must inform audience memberrs and convince them of your subject’s importance, the merits of your viewpoint and why tey should reconsider their own views

Burden of Proof

Changing people’s mind is difficult. Your listeners think they already have a rational view of your subject, whatever that view may be. Your task is to provide the proof they need to change their minds. You must arouse listeners’ interest, help them to assimilate new information into their existing knowledge and guide them into forming new beliefs. The more help you can provide in the process, the more successful you will be in persuading your listeners.

You already know about the importance of credibility in any speech. It’s even more crucial in a persuasive speech. If listeners don’t perceive you as credible, you will have difficulty persuading them to adopt your viewpoint or to take action. Two other factors also have a major influence on the audience:

Logic. To convince your audience you must provide evidence-outside sources that provide proof or lend support to your position. Research is invaluable in this respect. Your evidence and reasoning must be consistent and support your position.

Emotion. Few people are persuaded by logic alone. Emotions contribute a large part in people’s willingness to change their minds. Arousing emotions such as happiness, sadness, fear, anger, guilt and love in listeners and relating them to your subject is an effective tool.

Remember, listeners always want to know, “What’s in it for me?” the most successful persuasive speeches answer this question. Build your speech on points of major concern to the audience, not on your own concerns. For example, if you want to persuade the town council to build a walking path along the riverfront, point out how the townspeople and local businesses will benefit from the path instead of how the path will benefit you, an avid hiker.

Organizing Your Message

Once you’ve determined your purpose and audience and gathered information supporting your purpose, you’re ready to organize your presentation. You can take on of several approaches.

v  Problem/solution, state the problem, then present your solution, explaining why it is the best one. Then discuss how to put the solution into effect and what the audience can do to contribute. For example, you could begin a speech on local water pollution by stating that water pollution has increased dramatically in your community, and that last year more than 2000 fish died in the local lake because of it. Then follow with the effects this pollution and loss of fish have on the community, the sources of pollution, your solution to the problem and what listeners can do to help.

v  Proposition to proof. Begin with a statement of your proposition, then follow with proofs that support it. For example, if your purpose is to persuade listeners to vote for a proposal, you would begin by stating, “Vote for Proposition A, which provides more money for our schools,” then continue with the reasons and a strong closing statement. In this pattern, you are telling listeners immediately what you want from them. This approach works best with audiences who are agreeable, apathetic or uninformed, but it could further alienate hostile listeners.

v  Comparative advantage. Begin with a statement of the problem, then identify possible solutions and compare their respective advantages and disadvantages. Explain your solution and show why it has more advantages and fewer disadvantages tah the others.

v  Motivated sequence. This five-step speech structure, developed by Dr. Alan H. Monroe, a noted professor of communications, can be adapted to almost any topic.

1.      Attention. Seize the audience’s attention with your opening and direct that attention toward your topic. “Our rapidly escalating property taxes are supporting a spending spree by our government”.

2.      Need. State the existing need or problem, explaining why it’s important to listeners. “Property taxes must be lowered and government spending brought under control.”

3.      Satisfaction. Present your solution to the need or problem, showing how it meets the need or solves the problem. Support your position with evidence. “Proposition X will reduce property taxes and limit government spending.”

4.      Visualization. Draw a picture of future conditions, intensifying audience commitment to your position. Show how things will be if your solution is adopted or what might happen if it is rejected. “If this proposition fails, our taxes will continue to escalate, and many people will lose their homes.”

5.      Action. Turn the agreement and commitment you’ve gained into positive action or attitude by your listeners. “Vote ‘yes’ on Proposition X.”

Whichever approach you choose for your speech, don’t neglect the opposition’s position. Refute their arguments, beginning with their strongest and concluding with their weakest. Listeners remember best what they hear last, so they will think the opposition’s position is weak. Consequently, the last point you make should be the strongest one because your audience is more likely to remember it.

Your Assignment

This project focuses on persuasion. You are to:

v  Persuade listeners to adopt your viewpoint of ideas or to take some action. (Do not give an inspirational speech; this type of speech will be addressed in Project 10.)

v  Analyze your audience and appeal to their interests.

v  Use logic and emotion to support your position.

v  Organize your thoughts carefully and choose words that will add power to your message. Use body language and vocal variety to add even more impact. Use visual aids if they contribute to your message.

v  Avoid using notes; they may cause the audience to doubt your sincerity, knowledge and coviction.

Incorporate appropriate suggetions from the evaluations you received in previous speeches. As you prepare your speech, thoroughly research your subject and review the Speaker’s Checklist in Project 1.

Evaluation Guide for

Persuade with Power

Title

Evaluator                                                                              Date

NOTE TO THE EVALUATOR: The speaker is to present a persuasive speech that combines logical support for his/her viewpoint with a strong emotional appeal. The speech should focus on the self-interest of the audience. The speaker also has been asked to avoid using notes, if possible. In addition to your oral evaluation, please complete this evaluation form by checking the appropriate column for each item. Add your comments only for those items where special praise is warranted, or where you can offer specific suggestions for improvement.

	EXCELLENT	SATISFACTORY	COULD IMPROVE	COMMENTS/ SUGGESTIONS
v Did the speaker project sincerity and conviction?
v Was the speaker a credible source of information about this topic?
v Did the speaker phrase his/her appeal in terms of the audience’s self-interest?
v Did the speech opening capture the audience’s interest?
v Did the speaker use facts and logical reasoning to support his or her views?
v Did the speaker properly use emotion to persuade the audience to support his orher views?
v Was the speech organization effective?
v Did the speaker’s body language and vocal variety contribute to the message?
v Were you persuaded to accept the speaker’s views?

v What could the speaker have done differently to make the speech more effective?

v What did you like about the speech?

KEKUATAN AJAKAN

Hari ini kita dihebohkan dengan pesan singkat yang berisi persuasif/ajakan. Iklan mencoba membujuk kita untuk membeli merek tertentu minuman ringan, kopi atau antasida. Penjual mencoba membujuk kita untuk membeli sebuah mobil, komputer pribadi atau telepon seluler. Kita melakukannya juga, dengan mencoba membujuk pasangan kita untuk berlibur di Bahama, membujuk seorang penjaga toko untuk mengembalikan uang kita, atau meyakinkan bos kami bahwa proposal tertentu yang dikerjakan dengan sungguh-sungguh lebih baik. Orang-orang yang dapat berbicara secara persuasif memiliki banyak pengaruh. Kemampuan untuk membuat orang lain memahami, menerima, dan bertindak atas ide-ide Anda adalah keterampilan yang dapat Anda gunakan setiap hari di rumah, di tempat kerja dan di masyarakat. Ini juga merupakan karakteristik seorang pemimpin yang baik. Sepanjang sejarah orang telah berkumpul di sekitar mereka yang dapat berbicara secara persuasif (mempengaruhi).

Jenis-jenis ajakan/persuasi

Dalam ajakan pidato (pidato yang berisikan ajakan), tujuan utama adalah mempegaruhi pemikiran/kelakuan dari pendengar-pendengar. Anda dapat mempengaruhi mereka dengan beberapa cara:

v  Inspirasi. Tujuan Anda adalah untuk merangsang pendengar Anda tentang topik Anda atau memperkuat ide atau keyakinan yang ada, belum tentu mengubah pendapat atau keyakinan mereka. Khotbah dan alamat dimulainya termasuk dalam kategori ini pidato persuasif. Anda akan belajar lebih banyak tentang jenis pidato dalam Proyek 10.

v  Yakinkan. Anda ingin pendengar Anda mengubah pendapat mereka atau mengembangkan pendapat yang sama dengan yang Anda miliki. Anda mungkin tidak ingin mereka melakukan apa-apa saat ini tapi mengubah pikiran mereka. Sebuah presentasi meyakinkan pendengar bahwa ada kehidupan di luar keberadaan adalah contoh dari jenis pidato.

v  Panggil mereka untuk bertindak. Anda ingin pendengar untuk melakukan sesuatu setelah mendengar presentasi Anda, seperti menandatangani petisi, membaca buku atau membeli suatu produk.

Peran Anda

Tayangan menghitung, dan ini terutama berlaku dalam berbicara persuasif. Sementara isi pesan Anda adalah penting, sama pentingnya dengan opini pendengar Anda. Pendengar Anda harus suka, percaya dan menghormati Anda sebelum mereka akan mengadopsi ide-ide Anda. Mereka harus melihat Anda sebagai seseorang yang mereka dapat mengidentifikasi dengan seseorang yang sesuai kebutuhan dan kepentingan yang sama dengan mereka. Mereka mendasarkan pendapat mereka tentang Anda pada:

v  Pengetahuan Anda. Anda harus memenuhi syarat untuk membahas materi dan menawarkan bukti untuk mendukung posisi Anda. Anda harus tahu materi dengan baik dan mampu menghadirkan banyak bukti untuk mendukung ide-ide Anda.

v  Reputasi/nama baik Anda. Reputasi Anda didasarkan pada kinerja masa lalu Anda, prestasi dan kehormatan. Pastikan pendengar akrab dengan kualifikasi Anda melalui pendahuluan/perkenalan, muka publisitas atau pidato Anda sendiri.

v  Ketulusan Anda. Anda mengkomunikasikan ide-ide Anda dengan keyakinan dan percaya bahwa apa yang Anda usulkan akan benar-benar bermanfaat bagi pendengar. Pendengar biasanya curiga terhadap siapa saja yang mencoba untuk mengubah mereka dengan cara apapun, sehingga Anda harus membuatnya jelas bahwa Anda memiliki kepentingan mereka dalam pikiran dan tidak mencari dukungan mereka untuk alasan egois.

v  Penyampaian Anda. Jika Anda tampak takut-takut, pendengar akan cenderung kurang untuk menerima ide-ide Anda. Bicara dengan tegas dan percaya diri, dan bangun kontak mata langsung dengan pendengar.

Para Pendengar

Cara Anda menampilkan pesan persuasif Anda akan tergantung pada siapa pendengar Anda dan apa sikap yang mereka pegang ke arah subjek Anda. Pendengar Anda mungkin:

v  Persetujuan. Pendengar ini sudah setuju dengan pendapat atau sudut pandang, sehingga Anda hanya perlu memperkuat dan memperkuat perjanjian ini.

v  Apatis. Pendengar Anda tidak peduli tentang subjek atau pandangan Anda, sehingga Anda harus meyakinkan mereka bahwa masalah ini secara langsung mempengaruhi mereka. Ini adalah jenis yang paling umum dari sikap.

v  Bertentangan. Para pendengar menentang Anda, subjek Anda dan / atau sudut pandang Anda. Anda harus membantu pendengar untuk mengenali manfaat posisi Anda dan membuat mereka kembali pandangan mereka sendiri.

v  Ketidaktahuan. Pendengar Anda tidak apatis, mereka hanya tidak tahu apa-apa tentang subjek Anda. Anda harus mendidik mereka dan meyakinkan mereka bahwa subjek ini sangat penting.

v  Campuran. Pendengar berisi lebih dari satu dari jenis di atas. Anda harus memberitahukan pendengar dan meyakinkan mereka pentingnya subjek Anda, manfaat sudut pandang Anda dan mengapa mereka harus mempertimbangkan kembali pandangan mereka sendiri.

Bukti untuk Meyakinkan Pendengar

Mengubah pikiran orang itu sulit. Pendengar Anda berpikir bahwa mereka telah memiliki pandangan rasional tentang subjek Anda, apapun pandangan yang mungkin. Tugas Anda adalah untuk memberikan bukti yang mereka butuhkan untuk mengubah pikiran mereka. Anda harus membangkitkan minat pendengar, membantu mereka untuk mengasimilasi informasi baru ke dalam pengetahuan yang ada pada mereka dan membimbing mereka ke dalam keyakinan baru. Semakin banyak bantuan yang dapat kamu sediakan dalam proses, semakin sukses Anda akan membujuk pendengar Anda.

Anda sudah tahu tentang pentingnya kredibilitas dalam setiap pidato. Ini bahkan lebih penting dalam pidato persuasif. Jika pendengar tidak melihat Anda sebagai kredibel, Anda akan mengalami kesulitan membujuk mereka untuk mengadopsi sudut pandang Anda atau mengambil tindakan. Dua faktor lainnya juga memiliki pengaruh besar pada pendengar:

Logika. Untuk meyakinkan pendengar Anda, Anda harus menyediakan sumber bukti-luar yang memberikan bukti atau memberikan dukungan untuk posisi Anda. Penelitian sangat berharga dalam hal ini. Bukti-bukti dan penalaran harus konsisten dan mendukung posisi Anda.
Emosi/perasaan. Hanya sedikit orang yang dibujuk oleh logika saja. Emosi berkontribusi peranan besar dalam kesediaan orang untuk mengubah pikiran mereka. Membangkitkan emosi seperti kebahagiaan, kesedihan, ketakutan, kemarahan, rasa bersalah dan cinta dalam pendengar dan mengaitkannya dengan subjek Anda adalah alat yang efektif.
Ingat, pendengar selalu ingin tahu, "Apa untungnya bagi saya?" Pidato persuasif paling sukses menjawab pertanyaan ini. Membangun pidato Anda pada titik-titik perhatian utama kepada pendengar, bukan pada kekhawatiran Anda sendiri. Misalnya, jika Anda ingin membujuk dewan kota untuk membangun jalan sepanjang tepi sungai, menunjukkan bagaimana warga kota dan bisnis lokal akan mendapatkan keuntungan dari jalan, bukan bagaimana jalan akan menguntungkan Anda, hiker avid.

Pengorganisasian Pesan Anda

Setelah Anda menentukan tujuan Anda, pendengar dan informasi yang dikumpulkan mendukung tujuan Anda, Anda siap untuk mengatur presentasi Anda. Anda dapat mengambil beberapa pendekatan.

v  Masalah / solusi, mengembangkan masalah, kemudian menyajikan solusi Anda, menjelaskan mengapa itu adalah yang terbaik. Kemudian membahas bagaimana untuk menempatkan solusi berlaku dan apa yang pendengar dapat Anda lakukan untuk berkontribusi. Misalnya, Anda bisa memulai pidato tentang pencemaran air setempat dengan menyatakan bahwa pencemaran air telah meningkat secara drastis dalam komunitas Anda, dan bahwa tahun lalu lebih dari 2000 ikan mati di danau setempat karena itu. Kemudian ikuti dengan efek pencemaran ini dan hilangnya ikan terhadap masyarakat, sumber-sumber pencemaran, solusi untuk masalah ini dan apa yang pendengar dapat lakukan untuk membantu.

v  Proposisi sebagai bukti. Mulailah dengan pernyataan proposisi Anda, kemudian diikuti dengan bukti-bukti yang mendukungnya. Misalnya, jika tujuan Anda adalah untuk membujuk pendengar memilih proposal, Anda akan mulai dengan menyatakan, "Voting untuk Proposisi A, yang memberikan lebih banyak uang untuk sekolah kami," kemudian lanjutkan dengan alasan dan pernyataan penutup yang kuat. Dalam pola ini, Anda memberitahu pendengar segera apa yang Anda inginkan dari mereka. Pendekatan ini bekerja paling baik dengan khalayak yang menyenangkan, apatis atau kurang informasi, tapi lebih lanjut bisa mengasingkan pendengar bertentangan.

v  Keunggulan komparatif. Mulailah dengan pernyataan masalah, kemudian mengidentifikasi solusi yang mungkin dan membandingkan keunggulan dan kekurangan masing-masing. Jelaskan solusi Anda dan tunjukkan mengapa ia memiliki lebih banyak keuntungan dan sedikit kerugian dari yang lain.

v  Motivasi beruntun. Struktur pidato lima langkah, yang dikembangkan oleh Dr Alan H. Monroe, seorang profesor komunikasi, dapat disesuaikan dengan hampir semua topik.

1.      Perhatian. Menyita perhatian pendengar dengan pembukaan Anda dan mengarahkan perhatian terhadap topik Anda. "Pajak properti meningkat dengan cepat kami mendukung pengeluaran negara oleh pemerintah kita".

2.      Perlu. Sebutkan kebutuhan atau masalah yang ada, menjelaskan mengapa penting untuk pendengar. "Pajak properti harus diturunkan dan pengeluaran pemerintah dikendalikan."

3.      Kepuasan. Hadir solusi tentang kebutuhan atau masalah, menunjukkan bagaimana memenuhi kebutuhan atau memecahkan masalah. Mendukung posisi Anda dengan bukti. "Proposisi X akan mengurangi pajak properti dan pengeluaran pemerintah dibatasi."

4.      Visualisasi. Menggambar kondisi masa depan, mengintensifkan komitmen pendengar untuk posisi Anda. Tampilkan bagaimana hal-hal akan menjadi solusi jika Anda diadopsi atau apa yang mungkin terjadi jika ditolak. "Jika proposisi ini gagal, pajak kita akan terus meningkat, dan banyak orang akan kehilangan rumah mereka."

5.       Aksi. Putar kesepakatan dan komitmen yang Anda peroleh ke dalam tindakan positif atau sikap oleh pendengar Anda. "Suara 'ya' pada Proposisi X."

Apapun pendekatan yang Anda pilih untuk pidato Anda, jangan mengabaikan posisi oposisi. Membantah argumen mereka, dimulai dengan kekuatan mereka dan menyimpulkan dengan kelemahan mereka. Pendengar ingat apa yang terbaik yang mereka dengar lalu, jadi mereka akan berpikir posisi oposisi lemah. Akibatnya, titik terakhir yang Anda buat harus menjadi yang terkuat karena pendengar Anda lebih mungkin untuk mengingatnya.

Tugas Anda

Proyek ini fokus pada persuasi. Anda harus:

v  Membujuk pendengar untuk mengadopsi sudut pandang dari ide Anda atau mengambil beberapa tindakan. (Jangan memberikan pidato inspiratif, jenis pidato ini akan dibahas dalam Proyek 10.)

v  Menganalisis pendengar Anda dan menarik minat mereka.

v  Gunakan logika dan emosi/perasaan untuk mendukung posisi Anda.

v  Mengatur pikiran Anda dan hati-hati dalam memilih kata-kata yang akan menambah kekuatan untuk pesan Anda. Gunakan bahasa tubuh dan variasi vokal untuk memberikan dampak yang lebih. Gunakan alat bantu visual jika mereka berkontribusi untuk pesan Anda.

v  Hindari menggunakan catatan, mereka dapat menyebabkan pendengar untuk meragukan ketulusan Anda, pengetahuan dan keyakinan.

Masukkan saran sesuai dari evaluasi Anda terima dalam pidato sebelumnya. Ketika Anda mempersiapkan pidato Anda, keseluruhan penelitian subjek Anda dan tinjau Daftar Periksa Speaker dalam Proyek 1.

Petunjuk evaluasi untuk

Kekuatan ajakan

Judul:                                                                                    

Pengevaluasi:                                                                         Tanggal:

CATATAN UNTUK PENGEVALUASI: Pembicara menyajikan pidato persuasif yang menggabungkan dukungan logis untuk sudut pandangnya dengan daya tarik emosional yang kuat. Pidato harus fokus pada kepentingan pendengar. Pembicara juga telah diminta untuk menghindari penggunaan catatan, jika memungkinkan. Selain evaluasi melalui komentar, lengkapi dengan memeriksa kolom yang sesuai untuk masing-masing item ini formulir evaluasi. Tambahkan komentar Anda hanya untuk item-item mana pujian khusus dibenarkan, atau di mana Anda dapat memberikan saran spesifik untuk perbaikan.

	UNGGUL	MEMUASKAN	BISA DITINGKATKAN	KOMENTAR / SARAN
v Apakah proyek pembicara berisi ketulusan dan keyakinan?
v Apakah sumber informasi pembicara kredibel tentang topik ini?
v Apakah pembicara menarik perhatian pendengar?
v Apakah pembukaan pidato menangkap perhatian pendengar?
v Apakah pembicara menggunakan fakta dan logika dalam menghadirkan alasan untuk mendukung pandangannya?
v Apakah pembicara benar-benar menggunakan emosinya untuk  mendukung pandangannya?
v Apakah pengorganisasian pidato efektif?
v Apakah bahasa tubuh dan jenis vokal pembicara berkontribusi dalam menyampaikan pesan?
v Apakah anda dibujuk untuk menerima pandangan pembicara?

v Apa yang bisa pembicara lakukan secara berbeda untuk membuat pidato lebih efektif?

v Apa yang Anda sukai tentang pidato?

THE SUMMARY OF PROJECT 9

PERSUADE WITH POWER

The ability to persuade people getting them to understand accept and act upon your ideas is avaluable skill. Your listeners will more likely be persuaded if they perceive you as credible. If you use logic and emotion in your appeal. If you carefully structure your speech and if you appeal to their interests. Avoid using notes because they may cause doubt your sincerity, knowledge and conviction.

In persuasive speech, you can influence them in several ways. They are inspiring, convincing, and calling them to action. In this speech you have fulfill yourself by knowlegde, reputation, sincerity, and how to deliver your speech to the audience. Then, the way you present your persuasive message will depend on your listener. Your audience may be: agreeable, apathetic, hostile, uninformed, and mixed. Actually changing people’s mind is very difficult, so that you should convey your evidence by fact, logic and emotion. Next you should organize your speech to persuade them. You can take one of several approaches. They are problem/solution, proposition to proof, comparative advantage, motivated sequence. If you do all of that, of course, your speech will influence many people and get them to do what you have convey before.

Arranged by Nurul Hilmah